| Figure 1 | |||||
|
Researcher(s) |
Year |
Reactants |
Energy source |
Results |
Probability |
|
Miller |
1953 |
CH4, NH3, H2O, H2 |
Electric discharge |
Simple amino acids, organic compounds |
unlikely |
|
Abelson |
1956 |
CO, CO2, N2, NH3, H2, H2O |
Electric discharge |
Simple amino acids, HCN |
unlikely |
|
Groth and Weyssenhoff |
1957 |
CH4, NH3, H2O |
Ultraviolet light (1470–1294 Å) |
Simple amino acids (low yields) |
under special conditions |
|
Bahadur, et al. |
1958 |
Formaldehyde, molybdenum oxide |
Sunlight (photosynthesis) |
Simple amino acids |
possible |
|
Pavolvskaya and Pasynskii |
1959 |
Formaldehyde, nitrates |
High pressure Hg lamp (photolysis) |
Simple amino acids |
possible |
|
Palm and Calvin |
1962 |
CH4, NH3, H2O |
Electron irradiation |
Glycine, alanine, aspartic acid |
under special conditions |
|
Harada and Fox |
1964 |
CH4, NH3, H2O |
Thermal energy (900–1200º C) |
14 of the “essential” amino acids of proteins |
under special conditions |
|
Oro |
1968 |
CH4, NH3, H2O |
Plasma jet |
Simple amino acids |
unlikely |
|
Bar-Nun et al. |
1970 |
CH4, NH3, H2O |
Shock wave |
Simple amino acids |
under special conditions |
|
Sagan and Khare |
1971 |
CH4, C2H6, NH3, H2O, H2S |
Ultraviolet light (>2000 Å) |
Simple amino acids (low yields) |
under special conditions |
|
Yoshino et al. |
1971 |
H2, CO, NH3, montmorillonite |
Temperature of 700°C |
Glycine, alanine, glutamic acid, serine, aspartic acid, leucine, lysine, arginine |
unlikely |
|
Lawless and Boynton |
1973 |
CH4, NH3, H2O |
Thermal energy |
Glycine, alanine, aspartic acid, β-alanine, N-methyl-β-alanine, β-amino-n-butyric acid. |
under special conditions |
|
Yanagawa et al. |
1980 |
Various sugars, hydroxylamine, inorganic salts, |
Temperature of 105°C |
Glycine, alanine, serine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid |
under special conditions |
|
Kobayashi et al. |
1992 |
CO, N2, H2O |
Proton irradiation |
Glycine, alanine, aspartic acid, β-alanine, glutamic acid, threonine, α-aminobutyric acid, serine |
possible |
|
Hanic, et al. |
1998 |
CO2, N2, H2O |
Electric discharge |
Several amino acids |
possible |
Figure 1. A table of some amino acid synthesis experiments since Miller–Urey. The “probability” column reflects the likelihood of the environmental conditions used in the experiment. Modified from Rode, 1999.
| Figure 2 | ||||||
|
Book |
Miller-Urey/Origin of life |
|||||
|
#pages |
#words |
corrects atmospheric compostion |
experiments with updated atmospheres. | Alternate sources | Wells’s grade | |
| Schraer, W. D. and H. J. Stolze. 1999. Biology: The Study of Life, seventh edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 944p. |
1/2 |
109 |
No |
No |
No |
F |
| Johnson, G. B. 1998. Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Orlando. 895p. |
1 |
125 |
Yes, but does not give composition. |
No |
No |
D |
| Biggs, A., C. Kapinka, and L. Lundgren. 1998. Dynamics of life. Glencoe/McGraw Hill, Westerville, OH. 1119p. |
2 |
103+ box |
No |
No |
No |
D |
| Miller, K. R. and J. Levine. 2000. Biology, fifth edition. Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1114p. |
1/2 |
134 |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
D |
| Starr, C. and R. Taggart. 1998. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, eighth edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont CA. 920p. |
1/4 |
58 |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
F |
| Guttman, B. S. 1999. Biology. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 1175p. |
1/4 |
152 |
No |
Yes |
No |
F |
| Mader, S. 1998. Biology, sixth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 944p. |
1/4 |
82 |
Yes |
No |
No |
F |
| Raven, P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 1999. Biology, fifth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston. 1284p. |
2/3 |
194 |
Yes |
No |
No |
F |
| Cambpell, N. A., J. B. Reese, and M. G. Mitchell. 1999. Biology,fifth edition. Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 1175p. |
1 +1/4 |
330 +56 |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
D |
| Futuyma, D. 1998. Evolutionary Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 761p. |
1 1/3 |
129 |
No |
No |
No |
F |
Figure 2. Textbooks’ treatment of the Miller–Urey experiment. Textbooks listed in order of increasing detail (college level books highlighted, note that Futuyma is an upper-level college/graduate textbook).
| Figure 6 | ||||
|
Book |
Darwin’s “Tree of Life” |
|||
|
#pages |
#words |
mentions Cambrian |
Wells’s grade |
|
| Schraer, W. D. and H. J. Stolze. 1999. Biology: The Study of Life, seventh edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 944p. |
3/4 (1) |
148 |
No |
F |
| Johnson, G. B. 1998. Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart &Winston, Orlando. 895p. |
(8) |
NA1 |
Yes |
F2 |
| Biggs, A., C. Kapinka, and L. Lundgren. 1998. Dynamics of life. Glencoe/McGraw Hill, Westerville, OH. 1119p. |
1 (15) |
105 |
Yes |
F3 |
| Miller, K. R. and J. Levine. 2000. Biology, fifth edition. Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1114p. |
1(10) |
302 |
Yes* |
F4 |
| Starr, C. and R. Taggart. 1998. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, eighth edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont CA. 920p. |
(31) |
NA5 |
Yes |
F6 |
| Guttman, B. S. 1999. Biology. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 1175p. |
1 (24) |
111+7 |
No |
F |
| Mader, S. 1998. Biology, sixth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 944p. |
(15) |
NA8 |
Yes |
F9 |
| Raven, P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 1999. Biology, fifth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston. 1284p. |
(19) |
NA |
No |
F |
| Cambpell, N. A., J. B. Reese, and M. G. Mitchell. 1999. Biology,fifth edition. Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 1175p. |
NA10 |
NA10 |
Yes |
D |
| Futuyma, D. 1998. Evolutionary Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 761p. |
1+11 |
>200 |
Yes |
D |
Figure 6. Evaluation of Wells’s grading of Textbook Icon #2 “Darwin’s tree of life. Parenthetical notations reflect the number of phylogenetic trees shown in the book.
1. Johnson contains no specific section for a “tree of life”; some phylogenies appear in the text.
2. Johnson discusses the rapid origin of major animal body plans in the Cambrian, though he does not call it an “explosion.” A “D” would be a more appropriate grade.
3. Wells grade is an “F”; however, the book discusses the Cambrian in the “History of life” section (p. 406), although it does not explicitly call it “explosion.” A “D” may be a more appropriate grade on Wells’s scale.
4. The text explicitly discusses the “Cambrian Explosion” by name on p. 601; it also discusses problems with rooting the universal tree on p. 326. A “D” would be a more appropriate grade, perhaps even a “D+.”
5. Much like Campbell et al., Starr and Taggart integrate phylogenies throughout the text and use them to structure the diversity of life section.
6. The text discusses the Cambrian, although it does not refer explicitly to an “explosion.” A “D” would be a more appropriate grade.
7. Guttman devotes one paragraph to describing what phylogenetic trees are. Trees appear throughout the book when discussing evolutionary relationships of different organisms.
8. There is no single “tree of life” section in the text. Phylogenetic method is discussed in detail in the “Classification” chapter (chapter 28; p. 491–506) and phylogenetic trees appear throughout the text.
9. The Cambrian is discussed in the “History of life” section (chapter 20; p. 333) but is not called an “explosion”. A “D” may be a more appropriate grade.
10. Phylogenetic trees are integrated throughout Unit 5 (p. 490–665) , and there is no single treatment of the “tree” in the evolution chapter.
11. Futuyma has a section titled “Tree of life” in the “History of life” chapter; however, phylogenetic trees appear throughout the book.
| Figure 7 | ||||
|
Book |
Homology |
|||
|
#pages |
#words |
separates homology from phylogenetic reconstruction |
Wells’s Grade |
|
|
Schraer, W. D. and H. J. Stolze. 1999. Biology: The Study of Life, seventh edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 944p. |
1 |
309 |
No |
D |
|
Johnson, G. B. 1998. Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Orlando. 895p. |
1 |
110 |
No |
F |
|
Biggs, A., C. Kapinka, and L. Lundgren. 1998. Dynamics of life. Glencoe/McGraw Hill, Westerville, OH. 1119p. |
1 |
298 |
Yes |
D |
|
Miller, K. R. and J. Levine. 2000. Biology, fifth edition. Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1114p. |
1 |
116 |
No |
D |
|
Starr, C. and R. Taggart. 1998. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, eighth edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont CA. 920p. |
1/4 (1) |
100 (320) |
No |
D |
|
Guttman, B. S. 1999. Biology. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 1175p. |
1 |
380 |
No |
D |
|
Mader, S. 1998. Biology, sixth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 944p. |
1/2 (1/3) +1/3 |
118 (241) +280 |
Yes, but not strongly |
F |
|
Raven, P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 1999. Biology, fifth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston. 1284p. |
1/4 (1/2) |
127 (207) |
No |
F |
|
Cambpell, N. A., J. B. Reese, and M. G. Mitchell. 1999. Biology,fifth edition. Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 1175p. |
3/4 (1/4) +1 |
193 (362) +348 |
Yes |
D |
|
Futuyma, D. 1998. Evolutionary Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 761p. |
2 |
>400 |
Yes |
D |
Figure 7. Examination of grades applied by Wells for Icon #3. Parentheticals refer to additional coverage. Plus (+) numbers reflect secondary treatments of homology and convergence in phylogenetic reconstruction sections.
| Figure 11 | ||||
|
Book |
Embryology |
|||
|
#pages |
#words |
Embryo representation |
Wells’s Grade |
|
|
Schraer, W. D. and H. J. Stolze. 1999. Biology: The Study of Life, seventh edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 944p. |
1/4 |
108 |
redrawn (w/correction) |
F |
|
Johnson, G. B. 1998. Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Orlando. 895p. |
1/4 |
78 |
drawing |
F |
|
Biggs, A., C. Kapinka, and L. Lundgren. 1998. Dynamics of life. Glencoe/McGraw Hill, Westerville, OH. 1119p. |
1/2 |
96 |
drawing |
F |
|
Miller, K. R. and J. Levine. 2000. Biology, fifth edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1114p. |
1 |
324 |
drawing |
F |
|
Starr, C. and R. Taggart. 1998. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, eighth edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont CA. 920p. |
1/2 |
282 |
redrawn |
F |
|
Guttman, B. S. 1999. Biology. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 1175p. |
1/2 +1 |
265 |
Haeckel/Draw/ photos |
F1 |
|
Mader, S. 1998. Biology, sixth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 944p. |
1/4 +1/3 |
109 +86 |
Photo/drawing |
D2 |
|
Raven, P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 1999. Biology, fifth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston. 1284p. |
1/4 +1/3 +1/2 |
83 +170 +271 |
photo/ drawing/ redrawn |
F |
|
Cambpell, N. A., J. B. Reese, and M. G. Mitchell. 1999. Biology,fifth edition. Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 1175p. |
3/4 +3 |
247 +3 |
photos/ drawings |
D3 |
|
Futuyma, D. 1998. Evolutionary Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 761p. |
26 (1.5)4 |
5614 |
Haeckel (in context) |
F5 |
Figure 11. Grades for Embryology sections of textbooks.
1. Guttman devotes 2 chapters specifically to developmental processes. A nice up-to-date treatment (Chapter 20, 21 pp. 397-441) which discusses some of the “early stage differences” that Wells's grade suggests it does not.
2. Mader uses the term “pharyngeal pouches” rather than the much maligned “gill slits.” However, the grading scheme does not really have a way to take this into account.
3. This book also contains an entire chapter of developmental biology. (Chapter 47 p.936-960) in which it discusses some of the “earlier stage differences” that Wells's grade suggests it does not.
4. Futuyma devotes an entire chapter to “Development and evolution” (Chapter 23 pp. 651-676) in which he devotes 1.5 pages to Haeckel, explicitly.
5. Futuyma's treatment of Haeckel is placed in historical context, largely discussing why Haeckel was wrong. Even though the offending diagram is used, it is in historical context. It also clearly states that “gill slits” or “arches” do not develop into gills, and the they never have anything approaching “gills” during their development. Wells's grading scheme has no way to take such contextual issues into account.
| Figure 14 | ||||||
|
Book |
Archaeopteryx |
|||||
|
#pages |
#words |
evolution chapter |
diversity chapters |
dinosaur link |
Wells’s grade |
|
|
Schraer, W. D. and H. J. Stolze. 1999. Biology: The Study of Life, seventh edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 944p. |
1/8 |
54 |
No |
Yes |
No |
F |
|
Johnson, G. B. 1998. Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Orlando. 895p. |
1/3 |
112 |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
D1 |
|
Biggs, A., C. Kapinka, and L. Lundgren. 1998. Dynamics of life. Glencoe/McGraw Hill, Westerville, OH. 1119p. |
1/2 +1/3 |
164 +61 |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
C |
|
Miller, K. R. and J. Levine. 2000. Biology, fifth edition. Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1114p. |
1/3 +1 |
160 +420 |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
D |
|
Starr, C. and R. Taggart. 1998. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, eighth edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont CA. 920p. |
1 +1/8 |
>500 +46 |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
F |
|
Guttman, B. S. 1999. Biology. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 1175p. |
1/2+1/4 |
298 +129 |
Yes2 |
Yes |
Yes |
D |
|
Mader, S. 1998. Biology, sixth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 944p. |
1/4 +1/8 + |
58 +52 +11 |
Yes |
No |
Yes (but not strongly) |
F |
|
Raven, P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 1999. Biology, fifth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston. 1284p. |
1 |
466 |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
F |
|
Cambpell, N. A., J. B. Reese, and M. G. Mitchell. 1999. Biology,fifth edition. Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 1175p. |
3/4 +1/4 |
256 +79 |
No3 |
Yes |
Yes |
B4 |
|
Futuyma, D. 1998. Evolutionary Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 761p. |
1.5 |
>600 |
Na5 |
Na5 |
Yes |
D |
Figure 14. Textbooks’ treatment of and Wells’s grades for Archaeopteryx.
1. Discusses Archaeopteryx as an example of a genetic modification in evolution (scales – feathers); however, the discussion contains numerous errors.
2. Johnson does not “hint” at a controversy over Archaeopteryx’s transitional status. An “F” would be a more appropriate grade.
3. Archaeopteryx is discussed in the introduction chapter of the book under the topic of evolution with a picture of the Berlin specimen.
4. Wells gives a “B”; however, this makes little sense given that the book clearly presents Archaeopteryx as a transitional form, and plugs the “dinosaur” hypothesis, in all but the last 2 sentences. A “C” or “D” may be more appropriate on Wells’s scale.
5. Futuyma is entirely about evolution so there is no “diversity of life” chapters. Archaeopteryx is discussed under “evolving lineages in the fossil record” section, which catalogues many fossil examples of evolution.
| Figure 15 | |||
|
Book |
Peppered Moths |
||
|
#pages |
#words |
Wells’s grade |
|
|
Schraer, W. D. and H. J. Stolze. 1999. Biology: The Study of Life, seventh edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 944p. |
1.5 |
440 |
F |
|
Johnson, G. B. 1998. Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart &Winston, Orlando. 895p. |
1 |
245 |
F |
|
Biggs, A., C. Kapinka, and L. Lundgren. 1998. Dynamics of life. Glencoe/McGraw Hill, Westerville, OH. 1119p. |
1/3 |
117 |
X |
|
Miller, K. R. and J. Levine. 2000. Biology, fifth edition. Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1114p. |
1.5 |
500 |
F |
|
Starr, C. and R. Taggart. 1998. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, eighth edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont CA. 920p. |
3/4 |
346 |
F |
|
Guttman, B. S. 1999. Biology. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 1175p. |
3/4 |
299 |
F |
|
Mader, S. 1998. Biology, sixth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 944p. |
1 +1/2 |
364 +80 |
F |
|
Raven, P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 1999. Biology, fifth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston. 1284p. |
2 |
>500 |
D1 |
|
Cambpell, N. A., J. B. Reese, and M. G. Mitchell. 1999. Biology,fifth edition. Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 1175p. |
- |
- |
N/A |
|
Futuyma, D. 1998. Evolutionary Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 761p. |
1/4 |
121 |
D2 |
Figure 15. Grades for peppered moths.
1. While the text does not call the photos “staged,” it does mention the questions surrounding the daytime resting places of the moths, and it discusses the possibility of “other” selective factors. A “C” would be a more appropriate grade.
2. Futuyma clearly states that the photos are staged, but does not say that moths do not rest on trunks. A “C” may be a more appropriate grade.
| Figure 16 | ||||||
|
Book |
Darwin’s Finches |
|||||
|
#pages |
#words |
Darwin’s inspiration |
as adaptive radiation |
Grant’s work mentioned |
Wells’s Grade |
|
|
Schraer, W. D. and H. J. Stolze. 1999. Biology: The Study of Life, seventh edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 944p. |
1/2 |
115 |
Yes |
No |
No |
F |
|
Johnson, G. B. 1998. Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Orlando. 895p. |
3/4 |
237 |
Yes/no |
No |
No |
D1 |
|
Biggs, A., C. Kapinka, and L. Lundgren. 1998. Dynamics of life. Glencoe/McGraw Hill, Westerville, OH. 1119p. |
1/8 |
25 |
No |
Yes |
No |
F |
|
Miller, K. R. and J. Levine. 2000. Biology, fifth edition. Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1114p. |
2 1/2 |
580 |
No |
Yes |
No |
F |
|
Starr, C. and R. Taggart. 1998. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, eighth edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont CA. 920p. |
1/2 +1/4 |
184 +107 |
No |
No |
No |
F2 |
|
Guttman, B. S. 1999. Biology. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 1175p. |
1/4 |
147 |
Yes |
No3 |
Yes |
X4 |
|
Mader, S. 1998. Biology, sixth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. 944p. |
3/4 +1/4 |
213 +116 |
No |
No5 |
No |
F |
|
Raven, P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 1999. Biology, fifth edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston. 1284p. |
2 |
>500 |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
D6 |
|
Cambpell, N. A., J. B. Reese, and M. G. Mitchell. 1999. Biology,fifth edition. Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 1175p. |
1/4 +1/2+1 |
42 +340 +239 |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
D7 |
|
Futuyma, D. 1998. Evolutionary Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 761p. |
1+8 |
436 +1012 |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
D9 |
Figure 16. Grades given to textbook treatments of the Darwin’s finches. Plus numbers refer to additional treatments of finches.
1. Johnson makes no mention of beak shape variation and may hint that the finches were inspirational to Darwin. An “F” would be a more appropriate grade.
2. Starr and Taggart accurately represent the finches role in Darwin’s research, a “D” may be a more appropriate grade.
3. Guttman discusses the finches as an example of natural selection in action, along with other examples, in that section it mentions the finches as “influential to Darwin’s thinking”.Guttman uses Hawaiian honeycreepers as an example of adaptive radiation.
4. Finches are not called an example of adaptive radiation but are considered influential to Darwin. The “X” grade makes litte sense overall, should be an “F.”
5. Mader discusses the finches in the context of niche partitioning along with other examples. Mader Uses Hawaiian honeycreepers as an example of adaptive radiation.
6. Raven and Johnson accurately discusses the Darwin-Gould finch connection, and mentions that the beak shape oscillates. A “C” would be a more appropriate grade.
7. Campbell et al. receive a “D” from Wells, however, the text clearly states that beak shape oscillates, and in no way implies that Darwin used the finches as his inspiration. A “C” would be a more appropriate grade.
8. Futuyma discusses the finches in 9 separate sections of the text. One page(436 words) is devoted to the Grants work specifically.
9. Futuyma discusses the the finches are dealt with in great detail and mentions that beak size oscillates. In no way does Futuyma imply that the finches played a role in Darwin’s inspiration. Therefore, a “C” may be a more appropriate grade.
| Figure 17 | ||||
|
Book |
Level |
Evolution first mentioned on page |
# pages devoted to evolution |
Wells's overall grade |
|
Schraer, W. D. and H. J. Stolze. 1999. Biology: The Study of Life, Seventh Edition. Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ. 944p. |
HS |
130(1) 571 |
44 (38) |
F |
|
Johnson, G. B. 1998. Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart &Winston. Orlando 895p. |
HS |
17 |
99 (66) |
F |
|
Biggs, A., C. Kapinka, and L. Lundgren. 1998. Dynamics of life. Glencoe/McGraw Hill Westerville, OH 1119p. |
HS |
20 |
103 (48) |
D- |
|
Miller, K. R. and J. Levine. 2000. Biology, Fifth Edition. Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1114p. |
HS |
268 |
150 (53) |
F |
|
Starr, C. and R. Taggart. 1998. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, Eighth Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont CA. 920p. |
C |
10 |
143 (87) |
F |
|
Guttman, B. S. 1999. Biology. WCB/McGraw-Hill. Boston. 1175p. |
C AP-HS |
3 |
>200 (81) |
F |
|
Mader, S. 1998. Biology, Sixth Edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston, 944p. |
C |
4 |
109 (83) |
F |
|
Raven, P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 1999. Biology, Fifth Edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill Boston. 1284p. |
C |
8 |
226 (125) |
F |
|
Cambpell, N. A., J. B. Reese, and M. G. Mitchell. 1999. Biology, Fifth Edition. Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 1175p. |
C1 AP-HS |
9 |
>300 (61) |
D+ |
|
Futuyma, D. 1998. Evolutionary Biology. Sinauer Associates. Sunderland, MA. 761p. |
C* |
0 |
NA |
D- |
Figure 17. Grades given to textbooks in comparison to the coverage of evolution given in the text. Advanced texts are lightly shaded; college texts are heavily shaded. Parenthesized numbers under the topic “number of pages devoted to evolution” refer to the number of pages in the “evolution” chapter.